War between England and France

The War between England and France in The Three Musketeers is not merely a historical backdrop but a direct consequence of the personal rivalry between Cardinal Richelieu and the Duke of Buckingham, each man using the power of his nation to pursue a private vengeance rooted in their shared love for Queen Anne of Austria. This conflict, which culminates in the Siege of La Rochelle and Buckingham's assassination, provides the framework for the novel's central adventures, from d'Artagnan's journey to London to the final confrontation with Milady.

Causes and Background

The war is presented as a struggle between two powerful kingdoms, but its true origin lies in the personal motives of two men. Cardinal Richelieu, who "as everyone knows, had loved the queen," found himself outmaneuvered by Buckingham, who had "the advantage over him" in her affections. The cardinal's political aim to destroy La Rochelle, the last Huguenot stronghold, was intertwined with his desire to avenge himself on a rival. Buckingham, on his part, was equally driven by private passion. He admitted to d'Artagnan that his expedition to Re and his league with the Protestants of La Rochelle had but one object: "the pleasure of seeing you [the queen]." He openly declared, "Anne of Austria is my true queen. Upon a word from her, I would betray my country, I would betray my king, I would betray my God." The war, therefore, was a game played by two amorous men for a kind look from Anne of Austria, with the fate of nations hanging in the balance.

What Happens

The conflict unfolds through a series of key military and political events. Buckingham, arriving unexpectedly with ninety vessels and nearly twenty thousand men, surprised the Comte de Toiras on the Isle of Re and effected a landing. This act hastened the cardinal's resolution to press the siege of La Rochelle. The English, however, were eventually repulsed, beaten in all encounters, and forced to re-embark, leaving behind two thousand men, four pieces of cannon, and sixty flags. The cardinal, now free from the immediate English threat, continued the siege, but the war's personal dimension remained paramount. The cardinal's ultimate weapon was not a military one but a political and personal one: he sent Milady to London to negotiate with Buckingham, threatening to expose the queen's secrets and, if the duke persisted, to hope for an event that would change the destinies of states—a clear allusion to assassination. This threat was realized when John Felton, a Puritan fanatic seduced by Milady, stabbed Buckingham to death in Portsmouth, an act that effectively ended the English threat to France.

Consequences and Aftermath

The assassination of Buckingham had immediate and far-reaching consequences. The King of England, Charles I, fearing the news would discourage the Rochellais, tried to conceal it by closing all ports. The cardinal, now free from external interference, could press the siege of La Rochelle without fear of English succor. The city, deprived of Buckingham's promised assistance, surrendered after a year-long siege on October 28, 1628. The war thus ended in a complete victory for Cardinal Richelieu, both politically and personally. He had destroyed the last Huguenot stronghold and eliminated his rival for the queen's affections. The conflict also served as the crucible for the novel's heroes, providing the context for their most daring exploits, from the Bastion Saint-Gervais breakfast to the final pursuit of Milady, and ultimately leading to d'Artagnan's promotion to lieutenant in the Musketeers.